United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) stands as a principal federal law enforcement agency operating under the umbrella of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Formed more than two decades ago, its stated mission encompasses a broad spectrum of responsibilities: to conduct criminal investigations, enforce immigration laws, preserve national security, and protect public safety. This extensive mandate positions ICE at the forefront of domestic security and immigration enforcement efforts across the nation.
The agency’s operational structure is defined by two primary and distinct law enforcement components: Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) and Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO). Each component is tasked with unique functions essential to ICE’s overall mission. HSI is largely focused on disrupting transnational crime, while ERO is responsible for the apprehension, detention, deportation, and removal of undocumented immigrants. These divisions, along with several supporting offices, contribute to the agency’s multifaceted approach to federal law enforcement.
This article provides an in-depth look into ICE, exploring its origins, the intricate workings of its key divisions, and the specialized teams that support its operations. It aims to offer a clear, factual understanding of how this federal agency is structured and the diverse roles its personnel fulfill in upholding federal statutes and contributing to national security and public safety across the United States and abroad.
1. **United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE): Mission and Mandate**United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement, commonly known as ICE, is a federal law enforcement agency that officially commenced operations on March 1, 2003. It functions as a crucial component of the United States Department of Homeland Security, which was established following the September 11 attacks. The agency’s overarching motto, “Protecting National Security and Upholding Public Safety,” encapsulates its dual focus on safeguarding the nation and ensuring community well-being through law enforcement.
ICE’s stated mission is to “[p]rotect America through criminal investigations and enforcing immigration laws to preserve national security and public safety.” This mission involves the enforcement of over 400 federal statutes, indicating a wide jurisdictional scope. The agency specifically concentrates its efforts on customs violations, immigration enforcement, terrorism prevention, and various forms of trafficking, reflecting the complex nature of its operational responsibilities.
With an estimated workforce exceeding 21,800 employees projected for 2025 and an annual budget of approximately $9.13 billion for the same year, ICE represents a substantial presence within the federal law enforcement landscape. Its extensive operational jurisdiction covers the entirety of the United States, with specialist jurisdictions in customs, excise, and gambling enforcement, alongside its primary role in immigration matters. The agency also maintains a global footprint, with detachments at major U.S. diplomatic missions overseas.
Headquartered at 500 12th Street SW in Washington, D.C., ICE is led by an acting director, Todd Lyons, and a deputy director, Madison Sheahan. The agency has not had a Senate-confirmed director since Sarah Saldaña stepped down on January 20, 2017. This leadership structure oversees a complex organization responsible for a wide range of investigative and enforcement activities that impact national security and public safety daily.
2. **The Genesis of ICE: Post-9/11 Formation and Integration**The formation of U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement is directly linked to the aftermath of the September 11 attacks and the subsequent passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002. This legislative act brought about a significant reorganization of federal agencies with homeland security responsibilities. ICE was established to consolidate and enhance the nation’s efforts in immigration and customs enforcement under a unified departmental structure.
Upon its establishment, ICE absorbed and assumed functions previously carried out by two distinct federal entities: the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) and the United States Customs Service. The INS, which had been housed under the Justice Department, contributed its criminal investigative, detention, and deportation resources to the newly formed ICE. Similarly, the United States Customs Service, formerly part of the Treasury Department, transferred its criminal investigative and intelligence resources.
This consolidation was a strategic move aimed at streamlining operations and fostering greater collaboration among agencies responsible for border security and internal enforcement. By bringing these disparate functions under the Department of Homeland Security, the goal was to create a more efficient and coordinated approach to addressing emerging national security threats and enforcing immigration laws. ICE emerged as the largest investigative arm within the Department of Homeland Security, playing a critical role in its mission.
Initially, ICE also integrated the Federal Protective Service into its structure. However, the Federal Protective Service was later transferred from ICE to the National Protection and Programs Directorate in October 2009. Additionally, the Federal Air Marshals Service was briefly moved to ICE in 2003 before being returned to the Transportation Security Administration in 2005, illustrating some of the initial organizational adjustments within the nascent Department of Homeland Security.
3. **Homeland Security Investigations (HSI): The Investigative Arm of DHS**Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) serves as the primary investigative arm of the Department of Homeland Security, making it a critical component of ICE. HSI’s operational focus is centered on the disruption of transnational crime, which includes a vast array of illicit activities that cross international borders and pose threats to national security and public safety. This component plays a pivotal role in federal law enforcement efforts.
With a robust workforce comprising more than 10,300 employees, HSI is strategically distributed across 30 offices within the United States and maintains a significant international presence with 52 international offices, including 41 international sub-offices. This global reach underscores HSI’s mandate to combat crime at its source and prevent it from impacting the U.S. homeland. The origins of HSI special agents can be traced back to the formations of the United States Customs Service in 1789, highlighting a long-standing history of federal investigation.
HSI special agents are primarily criminal investigators, with approximately 6,000 personnel holding this designation. This makes HSI the second largest investigative service in the United States, after the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). These agents are deeply integrated into national security efforts, contributing to the FBI’s Joint Terrorism Task Force and often augment the U.S. Secret Service during times of increased demand, such as special security events and elections.
The scope of HSI investigations is extensive, covering violations of over 400 U.S. laws. Their investigative authority spans across critical areas such as counter-proliferation, human smuggling and trafficking, narcotics and weapons smuggling, human rights violations, and transnational gang activity. This broad mandate reflects the complex and interconnected nature of modern criminal enterprises that HSI is designed to combat, often requiring international cooperation and specialized investigative techniques.
4. **HSI Special Agents: Scope of Authority and Criminal Investigations**HSI special agents are classified as Series 1811 criminal investigators, distinguishing them as federal law enforcement officers with broad authority. Their statutory authority allows them to enforce a wide range of federal laws, crucial to the agency’s mission of protecting national security and public safety. This extensive legal framework enables them to pursue complex criminal investigations across multiple domains.
Specifically, HSI special agents are authorized to enforce the Immigration and Nationality Act (Title 8), U.S. customs laws (Title 19), and general federal crimes (Title 18). Furthermore, with approval from the Department of Justice, they also have authority under the Controlled Substances Act (Title 21), along with various other titles of the U.S. Code, including Titles 5, 6, 12, 22, 26, 28, 31, 46, 49, and 50. This broad jurisdiction empowers them to tackle diverse criminal enterprises effectively.
The types of investigations conducted by HSI special agents are comprehensive and address some of the most pressing threats to the nation. These include financial crimes such as money laundering and bulk cash smuggling, cyber crime, and critical efforts against child exploitation and tourism. They also delve into trade crimes, encompassing commercial fraud and intellectual property theft, as well as the smuggling of counterfeit pharmaceuticals and other merchandise that poses risks to public health and safety.
Beyond these areas, HSI agents actively investigate document and benefit fraud, which involves the manufacturing, sale, and use of counterfeit immigration and identity documents. Their work also extends to mass-marketing fraud, art theft, international cultural property and antiquities crimes, and export enforcement and visa security. This multifaceted investigative portfolio highlights HSI’s role in safeguarding the integrity of U.S. borders, financial systems, and cultural heritage from criminal exploitation.
5. **Targeting Transnational Crime: HSI Domestic and International Operations**HSI’s strategic approach to combating transnational crime is executed through both its robust domestic and expansive international operations. The largest contingent of HSI special agents is stationed within Domestic Operations, forming the backbone of the agency’s efforts within the United States. These agents are tasked with confronting criminal activities that threaten national security and public safety from within the country’s borders.
In fiscal year 2020, HSI special agents under Domestic Operations achieved significant results. They made 31,915 criminal arrests, demonstrating their active role in apprehending individuals involved in illegal activities. Their efforts also led to the rescue or identification of 1,012 child exploitation victims, underscoring their commitment to protecting vulnerable populations. Furthermore, they seized $341 million worth of counterfeit goods, 6,195 pounds of fentanyl, and $1.8 billion in currency and assets from criminal organizations, showcasing their impact on disrupting illicit networks.
Internationally, HSI’s reach extends through its International Operations (IO), formerly known as the Office of International Affairs. This subcomponent of HSI maintains agents in 60 locations worldwide, operating from foreign offices known as attaché offices. These international postings are critical for collaborating with foreign governments to identify and combat transnational criminal organizations before their activities can threaten the United States. This proactive approach helps to dismantle criminal networks at their source.
International Operations also plays a crucial role in facilitating domestic HSI investigations. It provides vital intelligence from host countries, conducts collateral investigations, and supports international investigations initiated by field offices within the U.S. This seamless integration of domestic and international efforts allows HSI to maintain a comprehensive and coordinated strategy against global criminal threats, ensuring that illegal activities are addressed regardless of their point of origin.
6. **HSI Office of Intelligence: Facilitating Tactical and Strategic Demands**The HSI Office of Intelligence is an integral division that supports the agency’s investigative mission by addressing its tactical and strategic intelligence requirements. This office employs a diverse team of special agents and intelligence research specialists who are dedicated to the collection, analysis, and dissemination of crucial information. Their work is vital for informing the operational elements of the Department of Homeland Security and its partners.
The intelligence gathered and processed by this office is essential for providing actionable insights to HSI’s operational components, enabling more effective law enforcement actions. The Office of Intelligence maintains close working relationships with intelligence components from other federal, state, and local agencies, fostering an environment of inter-agency cooperation and information sharing. This collaborative approach enhances the overall intelligence picture and strengthens national security efforts.
Within HSI field offices, intelligence analysts are often assigned to specialized groups, aligning their expertise with specific investigative priorities. These groups may focus on areas such as financial crimes, counter-proliferation, narcotics, or document fraud, ensuring that intelligence support is tailored to the needs of ongoing investigations. This specialization allows for a deeper understanding of complex criminal landscapes and more targeted intelligence products.
Furthermore, some intelligence analysts are assigned to residential intelligence units, known as Field Intelligence Groups (FIGs). Agents assigned to FIGs typically concentrate on human intelligence (HUMINT) collection. This focus on human sources and ground-level information gathering is crucial for developing a comprehensive understanding of criminal organizations, their methods, and their potential threats, thereby facilitating proactive law enforcement interventions.
7. **HSI Special Response Teams (SRT): Elite Tactical Operations**To address high-risk law enforcement scenarios, HSI maintains specialized units known as Special Response Teams (SRTs). These teams function as federal SWAT elements within 20 HSI field offices, providing crucial tactical capabilities for their respective areas of responsibility. The SRTs are designed to handle demanding situations that require specialized training and equipment, enhancing the safety and effectiveness of HSI operations.
The origins of these elite teams trace back to the U.S. Customs Service, where they were initially known as the Warrant Entry and Tactical Team. In 1998, they were renamed SRT, and with the establishment of ICE in 2003, these teams were formally integrated and established within the new agency. As of January 2020, ICE reported having 20 SRTs, comprising 34 full-time duty officers and an additional 269 collateral duty officers, indicating a significant commitment to tactical readiness.
SRTs are responsible for a range of high-risk operations, including executing high-risk arrest and search warrants, managing barricaded subjects, conducting operations in rural areas, providing VIP protection, and offering sniper coverage for sensitive missions. They also play a vital security role at designated National Security Events, demonstrating their versatility and importance in federal security operations. Their presence is a critical asset in ensuring the successful resolution of dangerous situations.
To qualify for an SRT, candidates must undergo a rigorous selection process. This involves passing a demanding physical fitness test, achieving 90 percent or better proficiency with multiple firearms while in full tactical gear, and successfully completing an oral interview. Those who pass these stages are designated “Green Team” members, allowing them to train with certified team members. Ultimately, Green Team members attend the SRT Initial Certification Course at Fort Benning, Georgia, where they face further physical fitness, firearms, scenario-based, and written assessments to achieve full certification. The working relationship between SRTs and the U.S. Department of Defense has also led to the provision of excess mine-resistant ambush protected vehicles (MRAPs), firearms, and other specialized gear to these teams.
8. **Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO): Core Functions**Enforcement and Removal Operations (ERO) is the component of ICE primarily dedicated to the deportation and removal of undocumented immigrants. This division frequently places the agency at the center of public attention, being described as “among the most public and contentious functions of ICE.” ERO maintains and oversees custodial facilities utilized for detaining individuals suspected of unlawful presence in the United States, particularly those considered to pose a “reasonable threat to the safety of residents.”
The operational focus of ERO exhibits variation depending on its geographic placement. In interior offices, ERO officers are primarily engaged in conducting targeted enforcement operations, with the objective of apprehending immigrants involved in serious criminal activity. Conversely, at border offices, the responsibility of ERO officers shifts to receiving and detaining undocumented immigrants who have been apprehended by the United States Border Patrol.
ERO’s mandate is comprehensive, encompassing the enforcement of the nation’s immigration laws and ensuring the departure of removable immigrants from the United States. Its detention and deportation officers are tasked with the crucial role of identifying, arresting, and subsequently removing immigrants who have violated U.S. immigration law. This systematic process forms a cornerstone of the agency’s operational strategy.
The responsibilities assigned to deportation officers are extensive and multifaceted. They are directly involved in managing the transportation and detention of immigrants held in ICE custody, culminating in the removal of these individuals to their countries of origin. Beyond physical removal, deportation officers also arrest immigrants for immigration law violations, diligently monitor cases during ongoing deportation proceedings, and supervise immigrants who have been released.
9. **ERO’s Operational Strategies: Fugitive Operations and Secure Communities**ERO employs strategically positioned Fugitive Operations Teams to address a specific challenge within immigration enforcement: locating, apprehending, and removing immigrants who have absconded from immigration proceedings. These individuals remain in the United States with outstanding warrants for deportation, representing a priority for enforcement efforts due to their failure to comply with legal mandates.
Due to limitations in staffing and resources, ERO Fugitive Operations typically concentrate their efforts on undocumented immigrants who possess a documented history of serious criminal convictions. This includes individuals implicated in severe offenses such as homicide, ual assaults, and various aggravated felonies, reflecting a strategic prioritization of public safety threats within their operational framework.
Another key program managed by ERO is “Secure Communities,” which is designed to identify removable immigrants located within jails and prisons nationwide. This program leverages existing criminal justice processes, where fingerprints submitted during routine criminal arrest and booking are automatically cross-referenced against both the FBI’s Next Generation Identification (NGI) system within its Criminal Justice Information Services (CJIS) Division and the Department of Homeland Security’s Automated Biometric Identification System (IDENT), part of the US-VISIT Program, to flag immigration violations.
10. **ICE’s Supporting Divisions: Legal, Oversight, and Coordination**The Office of State, Local and Tribal Coordination (OSLTC) serves as ICE’s primary component for external relations and communications. It is responsible for vital outreach and fostering relationships with state, local, and tribal stakeholders across the country. This office plays a key role in building and improving relationships, as well as coordinating activities with various law enforcement agencies at federal, state, local, territorial, and tribal levels through public engagement, while also maintaining critical ties with government officials.
The Office of the Principal Legal Advisor (OPLA) provides essential legal support across the entire ICE mission. Its functions encompass offering comprehensive legal advice, delivering specialized training, and performing various legal services critical to the agency’s operations. OPLA is also tasked with defending the interests of the United States in both administrative and federal courts, ensuring legal compliance and representation for ICE actions.
Ensuring accountability and upholding integrity within the agency falls under the purview of the Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR). This division holds the crucial responsibility of investigating all allegations of misconduct involving employees of ICE. Its work is fundamental to maintaining professional standards and fostering public trust in the agency’s operations and personnel.
11. **Specialized Support: ICE Air and ICE Health Service Corps**ICE Air functions as the aviation division of ICE, playing a pivotal role in the logistical aspects of deportations. This division charters aircraft or books commercial flights to facilitate the return of deportees to their home countries. Operating with a fleet of 10 aircraft, ICE Air has established a working list of 185 countries to which it conducts these removal flights.
During the boarding process, deportees have their legs and arms secured for safety protocols and operational necessity. However, these handcuffs are removed during the flight, and all shackles are taken off upon disembarking, indicating a phased approach to restraint. This procedure aims to ensure security while also addressing humanitarian considerations during the repatriation process.
The ICE Health Service Corps (IHSC) is a critical division dedicated to providing direct patient care to individuals within ICE custody. It caters to approximately 13,500 detainees housed across 21 detention facilities nationwide. IHSC ensures that medical services are available to detainees, addressing various health needs during their period of detention.
12. **Historical Controversies and Public Scrutiny: Pre-Trump Era**United States Immigration and Customs Enforcement has been implicated in numerous controversies throughout its existence, a trend that saw “significant increases in criticism” particularly during the Trump administrations. However, the agency’s period of heightened public scrutiny and challenges to its operational methods began much earlier, predating more recent political shifts.
From 2009 to 2016, under the Barack Obama administration, ICE oversaw the deportation of a record 2.4 million undocumented immigrants who had entered the United States. This significant volume of removals led Janet Murguía, president of the National Council of La Raza, to famously label Obama as “Deporter-In-Chief,” highlighting the scale of enforcement during his tenure.
According to data released by ICE, approximately 40% of the individuals deported by the agency in 2015 had no criminal conviction. A majority of those who were convicted were found guilty of what were classified as minor charges, raising questions about enforcement priorities. The statistics regarding these record deportations were partly influenced by a change in how deportations were officially counted, a practice that commenced during the preceding Bush administration and continued throughout the Obama years. This period also saw increasing calls for fundamental reforms or even the outright abolition of ICE.
13. **The Trump Administrations: Heightened Enforcement and Public Backlash**During the first presidency of Donald Trump, a hardline immigration policy was enacted with the explicit aim of reducing immigration. Shortly after taking office, Trump signed an executive order that authorized an increase in ICE’s staffing by 10,000 people and a vast expansion of the agency’s immigration enforcement powers. This marked a significant shift in federal approach to immigration.
While the Obama administration had largely prioritized individuals charged with serious crimes, Trump’s first administration directed ICE to target any individual it believed had entered the United States illegally, broadening the scope of enforcement considerably. Consequently, the number of encounters and arrests carried out by ICE increased substantially, a trend that controversially included the encounters and arrests of U.S. citizens.
A notable internal challenge emerged in 2018 when 19 HSI Special Agents in Charge (SACs), who are the senior-most officials in each investigative division, sent a letter to DHS Secretary Kirstjen Nielsen. They formally requested that HSI be separated from ICE, arguing that HSI’s investigative mission was “repeatedly being hamstrung by ICE’s civil immigration enforcement mission” due to negative associations with ERO’s activities. The senior leaders argued for HSI to become a standalone agency like the Secret Service, but this request was ignored.
The second Trump administration resumed hardline policies, initiating a major wave of deportations. Directives protecting sensitive areas like hospitals and schools were rolled back. The administration announced deportation plans for those temporarily admitted by the Biden administration, and the U.S. military was deployed to assist ICE in multiple states. The Alien Enemies Act was used for rapid deportations with limited due process, leading to detentions and deportations of some American citizens, and the administration’s practices faced legal challenges and controversy among legal professionals.
This period also saw the Trump administration setting daily targets for ICE arrests and engaging in campaigns to increase visibility of arrests. Allegations of targeting “Hispanic looking” people and findings of racial profiling by federal courts emerged. Reports of abuses at ICE jails, including detainee deprivation of food and water, alongside several deaths in custody in the initial months, fueled widespread national demonstrations against ICE’s policies in 2025.
14. **Evolving Public Perception and Challenges: Post-2025 Landscape**The “One Big Beautiful Bill Act,” signed into law by Trump on July 4, 2025, represented a monumental shift in ICE’s operational capacity. This legislation allocated “unprecedented funding” to ICE for detention facilities, deportation operations, and significant additional funds to hire new agents. Consequently, ICE became “the largest and most well-funded federal law enforcement agency in U.S. history,” surpassing even the federal prison system in funding.
This substantial increase in resources was projected to result in mass detentions and deportations, alongside restricted access to asylum, with anticipated economic and humanitarian ramifications. To support this expansion, recruitment incentives such as a “$50,000 sign on bonus” and “$60,000 college loan forgiveness for sworn police officers” were offered, aimed at attracting a significant increase in personnel.
Despite heightened governmental support, public opinion towards ICE experienced a dramatic downturn. By July 2025, multiple polls indicated that “a majority of Americans disapproved of the agency,” with “strongly negative public opinion that surpassed prior negative opinion of it during the 2018 ‘Abolish ICE’ movement.” A subsequent Pew Research Center report in late August highlighted a “sharp partisan divide,” with 72% of Republican supporters viewing ICE favorably, while 78% of Democratic supporters viewed it negatively.
In 2025, at least three notable attacks targeted ICE facilities in Texas. On July 4, an incident at an Alvarado detention center involved spray-painting, fireworks, and rifle fire that injured an officer; investigations linked suspects to anti-government, anti-ICE, and anarchist affiliations. An unrelated incident on August 25 involved a bomb threat at a Dallas ICE field office. The third occurred on September 24, when a gunman fired at a van at the Dallas field office from a rooftop, killing one detainee and critically injuring two others before taking his own life. Federal officials later described this as a premeditated terrorist act by an individual with anti-ICE sentiments, targeting officers.
The culmination of these developments, from the substantial increase in funding provided by the “One Big Beautiful Bill Act” to the pronounced partisan divide in public opinion and the documented attacks on its facilities, depicts an agency operating amidst significant external and internal pressures. ICE’s trajectory illustrates a complex evolution within the U.S. federal landscape, consistently navigating legal, ethical, and societal challenges inherent in its multifaceted mission of immigration enforcement and national security. This intricate dynamic underscores ongoing national dialogues concerning immigration policy, civil liberties, and the application of federal authority in contemporary American society.
