The massive military parade that coursed through central Beijing on Wednesday, September 3, 2025, served as a potent declaration of China’s evolving strategic vision. Orchestrated to commemorate the 80th anniversary of victory in the Chinese People’s War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression and the World Anti-Fascist War, the event was a deliberately fearsome display of weaponry. It was explicitly designed to communicate President Xi Jinping’s ambition for a new world order, underpinned by high-tech arms that, in many instances, appear to be ahead of its rivals.
While much of the immediate post-parade commentary inevitably gravitated towards the spectacle of new long-range nuclear-armed weapons, such as the colossal DF-61 intercontinental ballistic missile, a deeper, more profound narrative was unfolding. The true story, the one with potentially more significant long-term implications, lay in the prominence given to capabilities in the cyber and space domains, alongside the debut of entirely new military forces.
This article delves into these critical, often understated, aspects of China’s military modernization. It aims to illuminate how Beijing is not merely upgrading its existing arsenal but fundamentally restructuring its defense apparatus to integrate cutting-edge technologies and doctrines, particularly within the realms of cyberspace and outer space. By examining these new forces and advanced systems, we can begin to grasp the real strategic message China sent to the world from the Avenue of Eternal Peace.
1. **Debut of China’s New Strategic Forces**One of the most significant, yet potentially overlooked, aspects of Beijing’s grand military parade was the official debut of China’s new Information Support, Aerospace, and Cyberspace Forces. These units, appearing publicly for the first time, were presented as direct results of the People’s Liberation Army’s (PLA) major structural reforms. Their introduction underscored a clear strategic shift towards modern, technologically integrated warfare under the direct command of the Central Military Commission (CMC), signaling a profound reorganization of China’s defense priorities.
The transformation that brought these forces to prominence was formalized on April 19, 2024, with the official establishment of the PLA Information Support Force (ISF) in Beijing. This event simultaneously marked the dissolution of the former Strategic Support Force (SSF), whose core components were then split and reorganized. The aerospace and cyber forces, previously elements of the SSF, emerged as independent branches within a new “4+4” military organizational structure.
Under this revised framework, the four traditional military services—Ground Force, Navy, Air Force, and Rocket Force—are now complemented by four specialized branches: the International Security Force (ISF), Aerospace Force, Cyberspace Force, and Joint Logistic Support Force (JLSF). This restructuring is not merely administrative; it redefines the very architecture of China’s national defense, orienting it towards information dominance and advanced technological capabilities.
Spokesperson for China’s Ministry of National Defense, Wu Qian, eloquently described the distinct roles of these new entities, stating that “the Aerospace Force acts as the PLA’s eyes and ears; the Cyberspace Force is responsible for cybersecurity; and the ISF is like the nervous system.” The Cyberspace unit, specifically, is tasked with cybersecurity defense measures and has already participated in live-fire drills, while the Information Support Force, created in 2024, is dedicated to building network information systems critical for military combat readiness.
These new units signify China’s comprehensive commitment to adapting to the demands of modern warfare, where information and domain control are paramount. Their debut at the parade, therefore, was a powerful statement of Beijing’s intent to forge a cohesive, integrated national defense capability that can operate effectively across all domains, from traditional land and sea to the emergent battlegrounds of cyber and space.
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2. **Directed Energy Weapons (Laser Systems)**A distinct highlight of China’s military parade was the display of laser weapons, categorized under the umbrella of “directed energy weapons,” which also include high-powered microwave systems. The PLA showcased two specific versions: a massive one designed for naval air defense and a smaller, truck-mounted variant intended to protect ground troops. This dual presentation underscored the versatility and strategic importance Beijing places on these advanced defensive capabilities.
Unlike traditional kinetic weapons that rely on projectiles for physical impact, directed energy weapons employ electromagnetic energy to neutralize targets. Their operational mechanism involves disabling a target through intense heat, disrupting its internal electrical systems, or blinding its sensors, such as optics and radar. This non-kinetic approach marks a significant departure from conventional armaments, offering a different means of engagement in modern combat scenarios.
The advantages of directed energy weapons, particularly lasers, are compelling. They are significantly more economical than kinetic weapons, with a single shot from a laser costing only a fraction of a bullet or missile. Furthermore, logistics are simplified, as these weapons only require an energy source rather than heavy metal projectiles. This efficiency is particularly valuable for anti-drone defense, a growing concern for militaries worldwide.
The parade even featured a laser weapon that had been kept under wraps during rehearsals, emerging from beneath a tarpaulin to reveal what was described as “a big searchlight on a vehicle.” This calculated unveiling, noted by military analyst Michael Clarke, highlighted the secrecy surrounding its development and the pride in its public display. Laser weapons are at the forefront of the counter-drive to develop cheaper ways of shooting down increasingly advanced and numerous drone attacks, making them a crucial tool for defending against low-end threats.
Military equipment: Directed-energy weapon
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Summary: A directed-energy weapon (DEW) is a ranged weapon that damages its target with highly focused energy without a solid projectile, including lasers, microwaves, particle beams, and sound beams. Potential applications of this technology include weapons that target personnel, missiles, vehicles, and optical devices.
In the United States, the Pentagon, DARPA, the Air Force Research Laboratory, United States Army Armament Research Development and Engineering Center, and the Naval Research Laboratory are researching directed-energy weapons to counter ballistic missiles, hypersonic cruise missiles, and hypersonic glide vehicles. These systems of missile defense are expected to come online no sooner than the mid to late 2020s.
China, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia, India, Israel are also developing military-grade directed-energy weapons, while Iran and Turkey claim to have them in active service. The first use of directed-energy weapons in combat between military forces was claimed to have occurred in Libya in August 2019 by Turkey, which claimed to use the ALKA directed-energy weapon. After decades of research and development, most directed-energy weapons are still at the experimental stage and it remains to be seen if or when they will be deployed as practical, high-performance military weapons.
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3. **Electronic Countermeasures**Among the array of advanced military hardware presented, China’s electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment made a notable appearance, showcasing Beijing’s emphasis on sophisticated information warfare capabilities. Five distinct types of electronic countermeasure equipment were included in the parade formation, indicating a comprehensive and integrated approach to disrupting enemy systems.
These electronic countermeasure systems are designed with broad operational capabilities. Their functions encompass “aerial and space defense and countermeasures,” highlighting their utility in both atmospheric and orbital environments. Crucially, they are also equipped for the critical task of “disconnecting enemy networks and breaking digital chains,” which is fundamental to achieving information superiority in a conflict.
The strategic significance of these ECM capabilities lies in their ability to empower “all-domain operations.” By effectively disrupting an adversary’s communication, navigation, and targeting systems, China aims to create an operational advantage across various battlefields. This capacity to interfere with and degrade enemy electronic infrastructure is a cornerstone of modern warfare, impacting everything from reconnaissance to precision strikes.
The introduction of such advanced electronic warfare tools underscores China’s commitment to the concept of “intelligent warfare,” wherein the ability to control and manipulate the information environment is paramount. These systems contribute directly to the networked capabilities that define 21st-century warfighting, positioning China to neutralize threats not just kinetically, but also through the disruption of their digital nervous systems.
Military equipment: Electronic countermeasure
Categories: Articles with short description, CS1 Turkish-language sources (tr), Electronic countermeasures, Military communications, Short description matches Wikidata
Summary: An electronic countermeasure (ECM) is an electrical or electronic device designed to trick or deceive radar, sonar, or other detection systems, like infrared (IR) or lasers. It may be used offensively and defensively to deny targeting information to an enemy. The system may make many separate targets appear to the enemy, or make the real target appear to disappear or move about randomly. It is used effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles. Most air forces use ECM to protect their aircraft from attack. It has also been deployed by military ships and recently on some advanced tanks to fool laser/IR guided missiles. It is frequently coupled with stealth advances, so the ECM systems have an easier job. Offensive ECM often takes the form of jamming. Self-protecting (defensive) ECM includes blip enhancement and jamming missile terminal homers.
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4. **Space Defense Systems (HQ-29)**In a prominent display of its burgeoning aerial power, China unveiled the HQ-29 space defense system for the first time at the parade. This highly anticipated system is presented with the formidable capability of “taking down foreign satellites,” signaling a significant advancement in China’s counter-space capabilities and its commitment to securing its interests in orbit.
The public display of the HQ-29 carries profound implications for the future of space warfare and international security. While specific details about its exact capabilities remain largely unpublicized, the system’s considerable size suggests an “extreme range,” potentially comparable to the US Navy’s SM-3 Block IIA missile, which can be launched from both land and ship platforms. This comparison alone hints at a sophisticated and far-reaching anti-satellite (ASAT) capability.
The development and showcasing of such a system reflect China’s strategic recognition of space as a critical domain for modern military operations. As the Aerospace Force takes on the role of the PLA’s “eyes and ears,” the HQ-29 likely represents a defensive, and potentially offensive, cornerstone of China’s space strategy. Its ability to neutralize orbital assets could disrupt an adversary’s command and control, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities, thereby altering the balance of power in any future conflict.
This unveiling serves as a clear message about China’s evolving capabilities in the space domain, reinforcing its status as a major actor in this increasingly militarized frontier. The HQ-29 suggests a comprehensive approach to space, encompassing both the protection of its own space assets and the potential to deny an adversary the use of theirs, thereby shaping the dynamics of future geopolitical competition in orbit.
Military equipment: HQ-9
IsMissile: true
Name: HQ-9
Caption: An HQ-9 portable launcher during China’s 60th anniversary parade in 2009, Beijing
Origin: China
Type: Surface-to-air missile,Anti-satellite weapon,Anti-ballistic missile
UsedBy: #Operators
Manufacturer: China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation
Service: 2001 – present
Weight: cvt
Length: cvt
Speed: Mach number
VehicleRange: 120 km (HQ-9)
Ceiling: 50 km (HQ-9B)
FillingWeight: 180 kg
Guidance: Semi-active radar homing
Propellant: Solid fuel
LaunchPlatform: HQ-9 ground-launched,
HHQ-9 surface-launched
Categories: All Wikipedia articles in need of updating, All articles lacking reliable references, All articles needing additional references, All articles that may contain original research, Anti-ballistic missiles of the People’s Republic of China
Summary: The HQ-9 (simplified Chinese: 红旗-9; traditional Chinese: 紅旗-9; pinyin: Hóng Qí-9; lit. ‘Red Banner-9’; NATO reporting name: CH-SA-9.) is a long-range semi-active radar homing (SARH) surface-to-air missile (SAM) developed by the People’s Republic of China. The naval variant is the HHQ-9 (simplified Chinese: 海红旗-9; traditional Chinese: 海紅旗-9; pinyin: Hǎi Hóng Qí-9; lit. ‘Sea Red Banner-9’). The HQ-9 and its export variants are developed by China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation (CASIC).
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5. **Unmanned Systems and Drones (Land, Sea, Air)**The parade showcased an astonishingly diverse and extensive array of unmanned systems, commonly known as drones, operating across land, air, and sea. This comprehensive display vividly demonstrated China’s deep commitment to the changing nature of modern warfare and its rapid advancements in autonomous technologies. The sheer volume and sophistication of these systems were hard to ignore, with one weapon rolling by before the next could be fully comprehended.
The formations were packed with an impressive variety of drones, signaling their integration into all facets of the People’s Liberation Army. On display were extra-large unmanned submarines, such as the AJX002 – a long, black tube-shaped craft resembling a narrow submarine with a rear propeller – designed for stealth and deep-sea operations. In the air, aircraft capable of flying as “ loyal wingmen ” to the PLA Air Force’s state-of-the-art stealth fighters indicated a future of collaborative manned-unmanned combat. Ground drones, some armed with machine guns, others configured for mine-clearing or logistics, further highlighted their versatile applications.
Military analysts were particularly struck by the observed capabilities. Malcolm Davis, a senior analyst in defense strategy at the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), noted that “the unmanned systems that the Chinese are displaying today are quite significantly advanced. They seem to be more advanced in some respects than what we’re seeing in the West, and they’re in operational service.” This assessment suggests that China is not merely developing prototypes but actively deploying these sophisticated systems within its forces.
Beyond combat roles, the parade also featured unmanned helicopters designed to be launched from ships, further extending naval capabilities, and the intriguing “robot wolves,” which were carried on vehicles, suggesting potential applications in battlefield robotics or even weaponization for direct combat. The collective display underscored China’s embrace of what it describes as “intelligentised warfare,” where autonomous capabilities and networked systems play a central role in shaping future conflicts.
The presence of various new-type unmanned maritime weapons, including unmanned underwater vehicles, boats, and mine-laying systems, further solidifies China’s position as a leader in unmanned warfare. These systems are poised to perform critical roles from reconnaissance-strike operations to logistics support, demonstrating a truly systematized approach to unmanned combat groups across land, sea, and air.
Military equipment: Unmanned Systems Forces
UnitName: Unmanned Systems Forces
NativeName: Сили безпілотних систем
Dates: 6 February 2024–present
Country: UKR
Role: Drone warfare
Size: 5,000
CommandStructure: military
Garrison: Kyiv
GarrisonLabel: Headquarters
Equipment: Unmanned combat vehicle
Commander1: Robert Brovdi
NotableCommanders: Vadym Sukharevsky
IdentificationSymbol: File:The Unmanned Systems Forces of AFU logo sign.svg
IdentificationSymbolLabel: Logo
IdentificationSymbol2: File:Flag of the Unmanned Systems Forces of Ukraine.png
IdentificationSymbol2Label: Flag
Website: https://usforces.army/en/
Categories: 2024 establishments in Ukraine, All articles with unsourced statements, Articles containing Ukrainian-language text, Articles with short description, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2025
Summary: The Unmanned Systems Forces (abbr. USF, Ukrainian: Сили безпілотних систем, СБС, romanized: Syly bezpilotnykh system, SBS) is a branch of the Armed Forces of Ukraine that specializes in drone warfare and the use of unmanned military robots on land, sea, and air. The USF was created in the midst of the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine, and was formally established on 11 June 2024. Ukraine is the first country to have a branch of its military dedicated to unmanned systems.
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6. **Intelligent Warfare Concept**The Beijing military parade offered a profound glimpse into China’s strategic doctrine of “intelligent warfare,” a concept that permeates the modernization efforts across the People’s Liberation Army. As articulated by Ankit Panda, Senior Fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, this paradigm shift entails a significant focus on “autonomous capabilities, network capabilities, modern 21st century warfighting systems.” It is a vision where interconnected and self-operating technologies drive the effectiveness of military operations.
The emphasis on intelligent warfare was discernible throughout the parade, from the proliferation of advanced drones across all domains to the debut of new military branches like the Cyberspace and Information Support Forces. These new units, alongside the display of electronic countermeasures, collectively signify China’s dedication to building a military that leverages cutting-edge technology for enhanced decision-making, operational tempo, and overall combat power. The goal is to move beyond traditional force-on-force engagements to a more adaptive, technologically driven approach.
The integration of autonomous systems, as seen in the wide array of unmanned vehicles and robotics, is a cornerstone of this concept. These capabilities enable forces to operate in high-risk environments, extend reach, and gather intelligence with unprecedented efficiency. Coupled with robust network capabilities, these systems allow for seamless communication, data sharing, and synchronized operations across disparate units, creating a more cohesive and responsive fighting force.
Ultimately, intelligent warfare represents China’s strategic response to the complexities of the modern battlefield. It aims to transform the PLA into a force capable of leveraging information advantage and technological superiority to achieve its objectives. The parade’s extensive showcase of these elements served as a compelling demonstration of how China intends to fight and win future conflicts, emphasizing the centrality of intelligence, autonomy, and connectivity.
Military equipment: Intelligent agent
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Summary: In artificial intelligence, an intelligent agent is an entity that perceives its environment, takes actions autonomously to achieve goals, and may improve its performance through machine learning or by acquiring knowledge. AI textbooks define artificial intelligence as the “study and design of intelligent agents,” emphasizing that goal-directed behavior is central to intelligence.
A specialized subset of intelligent agents, agentic AI (also known as an AI agent or simply agent), expands this concept by proactively pursuing goals, making decisions, and taking actions over extended periods.
Intelligent agents can range from simple to highly complex. A basic thermostat or control system is considered an intelligent agent, as is a human being, or any other system that meets the same criteria—such as a firm, a state, or a biome.
Intelligent agents operate based on an objective function, which encapsulates their goals. They are designed to create and execute plans that maximize the expected value of this function upon completion. For example, a reinforcement learning agent has a reward function, which allows programmers to shape its desired behavior. Similarly, an evolutionary algorithm’s behavior is guided by a fitness function.
Intelligent agents in artificial intelligence are closely related to agents in economics, and versions of the intelligent agent paradigm are studied in cognitive science, ethics, and the philosophy of practical reason, as well as in many interdisciplinary socio-cognitive modeling and computer social simulations.
Intelligent agents are often described schematically as abstract functional systems similar to computer programs. To distinguish theoretical models from real-world implementations, abstract descriptions of intelligent agents are called abstract intelligent agents. Intelligent agents are also closely related to software agents—autonomous computer programs that carry out tasks on behalf of users. They are also referred to using a term borrowed from economics: a “rational agent”.
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7. **Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGVs)**Among the most striking technological advancements highlighted at the parade were missiles equipped with hypersonic glide vehicles (HGVs), a category of weaponry that presents a significant challenge to existing defense systems worldwide. These formidable missiles are designed to carry warheads at speeds exceeding five times the speed of sound, a velocity that dramatically reduces reaction times for adversaries. Crucially, their irregular flight trajectories introduce an unpredictable element that can effectively “vex missile defenses,” making interception extraordinarily difficult.
The strategic implications of HGVs were further underscored by the display of several specific hypersonic anti-ship missiles. These included the Yingji-19, Yingji-17, and Yingji-20, which have garnered particular attention as China has reportedly tested them against mockups of US aircraft carriers. The parade also featured the Yingji-15 missile and the YJ-21, famously known as the “carrier killer.” The YJ-21, capable of supersonic speeds and an estimated range over 600km, is explicitly intended to be used against high-value naval targets.
These advanced anti-ship missiles are more than just deterrents; they are “designed to frighten the United States,” as military analyst Michael Clarke observed, particularly with reference to the Pacific Ocean where US warships patrol from their 7th Fleet headquarters in Japan. The threat posed by these weapons is tangible, potentially allowing China to project power and deny access in critical maritime theaters, challenging the operational freedom of naval forces.
China’s rapid advancement in hypersonic weapons technology has become a focal point of global attention. Its ability to field systems that can evade traditional defense mechanisms grants it a significant military edge. The Dong Feng-17 and Dong Feng-26D, also showcased, were described by state media as equipped with “all-weather combat capabilities,” further emphasizing the comprehensive nature of China’s hypersonic arsenal. This capability represents a substantial leap in offensive projection, reshaping calculations for naval dominance and regional security.
China’s September 3, 2025 military parade offered a comprehensive view of its evolving defense strategy, extending beyond the debut of new forces and cyber-space capabilities to reveal a deeper transformation in its overall military posture. The event underscored Beijing’s methodical approach to building a modern, technologically advanced armed forces, capable of asserting its interests on a global stage. This further examination delves into other critical strategic assets, China’s industrial might, and the geopolitical ambitions that underpin its rapid military modernization.
Military equipment: Hypersonic glide vehicle
Categories: All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2022, Articles with short description, Ballistic missiles, CS1 French-language sources (fr)
Summary: A hypersonic glide vehicle (HGV) is a type of warhead for ballistic missiles that can maneuver and glide at hypersonic speed. It is used in conjunction with ballistic missiles to significantly change their trajectories after launch. Conventional ballistic missiles follow a predictable ballistic trajectory and are vulnerable to interception by the latest anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems. The in-flight maneuverability of HGVs makes them unpredictable, allowing them to effectively evade air defenses. As of 2022, hypersonic glide vehicles are the subject of an arms race.
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8. **Nuclear Triad Modernization**For the first time, Beijing explicitly showcased its strategic nuclear capabilities, unveiling a fully integrated nuclear triad comprising land, sea, and air-based missiles. This debut signified a crucial milestone in China’s national defense, demonstrating a layered and robust deterrence posture on par with leading global powers. The comprehensive display aimed to project an unassailable strategic “ace” power, as characterized by Xinhua, dedicated to safeguarding the nation’s sovereignty and dignity.
The parade featured an array of powerful systems integral to this triad. The JL-1 air-based long-range missile was shown, alongside the JL-3 submarine-launched intercontinental missile, underscoring the expansion of China’s sea-based and air-based nuclear reach. On land, the formidable DF-61 intercontinental ballistic missile, identified as the PLA Rocket Force’s first new ICBM since the DF-41’s introduction in 2019, was presented, complemented by the new type DF-31 land-based intercontinental missile.
Further enhancing this land-based component was the Dong Feng-5C, a liquid-fueled intercontinental nuclear strategic missile. State media confirmed its strike range encompasses the “entire globe,” a statement with significant geopolitical implications. Experts estimate this new variant of the Dong Feng-5C is capable of carrying up to 12 warheads on a single missile, signaling a substantial increase in both range and payload capacity. China’s public unveiling of these systems confirms its status as one of only four nations, alongside the United States, Russia, and India, known to possess a nuclear triad.
Military equipment: Nuclear triad
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Summary: A nuclear triad is a three-pronged military force structure of global-range land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and strategic bombers with nuclear bombs and missiles. More broadly, it can sometimes be used to mean any nuclear force with land, sea, and air basing, and more limited range. Countries build nuclear triads to eliminate an enemy’s ability to destroy a nation’s nuclear forces in a first-strike attack, which preserves their own ability to launch a second strike and therefore increases their nuclear deterrence.
Four countries are known to have complete nuclear triad: the United States, Russia, India, and China. Israel possesses all three delivery platforms but its Popeye SLCMs and fighter bombers are not intercontinental range.
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9. **Advanced Air Defense Systems**The parade also offered an extensive look at China’s sophisticated air defense weaponry, highlighting its ability to establish multi-layered interception capabilities across various ranges. These systems are designed to provide robust protection against a wide spectrum of aerial threats, from traditional aircraft to modern missile attacks, reflecting a comprehensive approach to securing Chinese airspace.
Among the systems showcased were the HongQi-20, HongQi-19, and HongQi-29, which together form a formidable defensive network. These units are engineered for multi-phase and multi-layered missile interception, capable of engaging targets at long, medium, and short ranges. The inclusion of four types of carrier-based air defense equipment further illustrated a commitment to extending these protective layers to naval assets, ensuring all-range air defense for China’s expanding maritime forces.
Complementing these conventional air defense assets, China also unveiled advanced anti-unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) systems. This formation notably featured an anti-UAV missile-gun integrated system, high-energy laser weapons, and high-power microwave weapons. Collectively, these three types of weapons constitute a powerful “trio” within the PLA’s anti-UAV system, designed to counter the growing threat posed by increasingly sophisticated and numerous drone attacks with both kinetic and directed energy solutions.
Military equipment: Rafael Advanced Defense Systems
Name: Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd.
Logo: Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Logo.svg
LogoSize: 250px
Type: Government-owned corporation
Predecessor: Science Corps
Foundation: [object Object]
LocationCity: Kiryat Bialik
LocationCountry: Israel
KeyPeople: Yoav Har-Even
Industry: Arms industry,Aerospace
Products: Artillery
Revenue: United States dollar
NetIncome: United States dollar
Owner: State of Israel
NumEmployees: 10,000
Divisions: Missiles and NCW Division,Ordnance and Protection Division,Manor – Advanced Defense Technologies Division
Subsid: RDC (RAFAEL Development Corporation)
Homepage: www.rafael.co.il
Categories: 1948 establishments in Israel, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, All articles with dead external links, Articles containing Hebrew-language text, Articles with dead external links from April 2023
Summary: Rafael Advanced Defense Systems Ltd. (Hebrew: רפאל – מערכות לחימה מתקדמות בע”מ) is an Israeli defense technology company. It was founded as Israel’s National R&D Defense Laboratory for the development of weapons and military technology within the Israeli Ministry of Defense; in 2002 it was incorporated as a limited company.
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10. **Fifth-Generation Fighter Jets**China’s aerial prowess was strikingly demonstrated by the flypast of its two indigenously developed fifth-generation fighter jets: the Chengdu J-20 and the Shenyang J-35A. These aircraft represent the pinnacle of China’s advancements in stealth technology and aerial combat capabilities, marking Beijing’s serious intent to project air superiority in the modern era. Both models are equipped with stealth features, specifically engineered to challenge and rival the capabilities of the United States Air Force’s F-35 jet.
The development and operational deployment of two distinct fifth-generation platforms signify China’s rapid progress in military aviation. It places China as one of only a few nations to possess such advanced aerial assets, alongside the United States (with its F-35 and F-22) and Russia (with its Su-57). This achievement highlights a deliberate strategy to narrow the technological gap with established aerospace powers and enhance its overall offensive and defensive air capabilities.
Furthermore, the parade’s earlier display of unmanned aircraft capable of acting as “loyal wingmen” to the PLA Air Force’s state-of-the-art stealth fighters suggests an integrated approach to future air warfare. This concept indicates that these advanced manned fighters will operate in conjunction with autonomous drones, augmenting their reach, sensor capabilities, and strike options, thereby maximizing the overall effectiveness of China’s air combat formations and further solidifying its “intelligent warfare” doctrine.
Military equipment: Fifth-generation fighter
Name: Fifth-generation fighter
Caption: Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Categories: 2000s aircraft, 2000s in technology, All articles containing potentially dated statements, Articles containing Russian-language text, Articles containing Turkish-language text
Summary: A fifth-generation fighter is a jet fighter aircraft classification which includes major technologies developed during the first part of the 21st century. As of 2025, these are the most advanced fighters in operation. The characteristics of a fifth-generation fighter are not universally agreed upon, and not every fifth-generation type necessarily has them all; however, they typically include stealth, low-probability-of-intercept radar (LPIR), agile airframes with supercruise performance, advanced avionics features, and highly integrated computer systems capable of networking with other elements within the battlespace for situational awareness and C3 (command, control and communications) capabilities.
As of January 2023, the combat-ready fifth-generation fighters are the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor, which entered service with the United States Air Force (USAF) in December 2005; the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, which entered service with the United States Marine Corps (USMC) in July 2015; the Chengdu J-20, which entered service with the People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) in March 2017; Shenyang J-35, which was officially introduced in July, 2025 and the Sukhoi Su-57, which entered service with the Russian Air Force (VVS) on 25 December 2020. Other national and international projects are in various stages of development.
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11. **Strategic Bombers**The aerial segment of the parade notably included China’s strategic bombers, underscoring its commitment to developing robust long-range air-based strike forces. The H-6N, H-6K, and H-6J bombers all flew over Tiananmen Square, showcasing the PLA’s current capabilities for delivering payloads over significant distances and projecting power beyond its immediate periphery. These aircraft form a crucial component of China’s broader deterrence and offensive strategies, allowing for sustained air presence and potential strike missions.
Despite this display, a notable gap remains when comparing China’s strategic bomber fleet to those of leading global military powers. Specifically, the PLA Air Force has yet to publicly unveil a stealth bomber capable of matching the operational category of the US B-2. While reports suggest that such a stealth bomber is currently “in the works,” its absence from the parade indicates it is not yet ready for public display or operational deployment.
This ongoing development highlights the continuous race for air power supremacy. Even as China works on its next-generation bomber, the United States’ next-generation stealth bomber, the B-21, is already in the prototype stage, indicating the persistent technological competition. China’s strategic bomber fleet, while extensive, continues to evolve as Beijing endeavors to close remaining technological disparities and enhance its long-range air projection capabilities with advanced stealth platforms.
Military equipment: Strategic bomber
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Summary: A strategic bomber is a medium-to-long-range penetration bomber aircraft designed to drop large amounts of air-to-ground weaponry onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating the enemy’s capacity to wage war. Unlike tactical bombers, penetrators, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft, which are used in air interdiction operations to attack enemy combatants and military equipment, strategic bombers are designed to fly into enemy territory to destroy strategic targets (e.g., infrastructure, logistics, military installations, factories, etc.). In addition to strategic bombing, strategic bombers can be used for tactical missions. There are currently only three countries that operate strategic bombers: the United States, Russia and China.
The modern strategic bomber role appeared after strategic bombing was widely employed, and atomic bombs were first used during World War II. Nuclear strike missions (i.e., delivering nuclear-armed missiles or bombs) can potentially be carried out by most modern fighter-bombers and strike fighters, even at intercontinental range, with the use of aerial refueling, so any nation possessing this combination of equipment and techniques theoretically has such capability. Primary delivery aircraft for a modern strategic bombing mission need not always necessarily be a heavy bomber type, and any modern aircraft capable of nuclear strikes at long range is equally able to carry out tactical missions with conventional weapons. An example is France’s Mirage IV, a small strategic bomber replaced in service by the ASMP-equipped Mirage 2000N fighter-bomber and Rafale multirole fighter.
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12. **Industrial Capacity Edge**The sheer volume of advanced military hardware exhibited during the parade served as a powerful testament to China’s formidable industrial might. This massive production capability suggests that Beijing possesses the necessary foundational strength not only to articulate but potentially to enforce President Xi Jinping’s vision for a new world order. The ability to produce such a wide array of sophisticated weaponry at scale is a critical strategic advantage in any modern geopolitical context.
Observers drew parallels between China’s current industrial capacity and that which the United States mobilized to win World War II, a historical benchmark that the parade itself commemorated. However, a significant contrast emerged: while US industry was pivotal 80 years ago, many now contend that America lacks the current capacity to match China in turning out military hardware in similar numbers. This difference in manufacturing capability presents a tangible shift in global defense production dynamics.
As Malcolm Davis, a senior analyst at the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, articulated, China is demonstrating “an ability to develop advanced military capabilities by themselves, deploy them operationally and do it faster than what you’re seeing happen in the West.” He further noted that China does this “in larger volume in terms of sheer numbers of weapons deployed.” This sentiment was echoed by retired Australian Army Maj. Gen. Mick Ryan, who emphasized that China’s military, while technologically sophisticated, “just about builds everything it needs indigenously,” thereby mitigating the risk of being “coerced” by foreign weapon suppliers.
Military equipment: Carrying capacity
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Summary: The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the maximum population size of a biological species that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other resources available. The carrying capacity is defined as the environment’s maximal load, which in population ecology corresponds to the population equilibrium, when the number of deaths in a population equals the number of births (as well as immigration and emigration). Carrying capacity of the environment implies that the resources extraction is not above the rate of regeneration of the resources and the wastes generated are within the assimilating capacity of the environment. The effect of carrying capacity on population dynamics is modelled with a logistic function. Carrying capacity is applied to the maximum population an environment can support in ecology, agriculture and fisheries. The term carrying capacity had been applied to a few different processes in the past before finally being applied to human population limits in the 1950s. The notion of carrying capacity for humans is covered by the notion of sustainable population.
An early detailed examination of global limits on human population was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth, which has prompted follow-up commentary and analysis, including much criticism. A 2012 review in the journal Nature by 22 international researchers expressed concerns that the Earth may be “approaching a state shift” in which the biosphere may become less hospitable to human life, and in which the human carrying capacity may diminish. This concern that humanity may be passing beyond “tipping points” for safe use of the biosphere has increased in subsequent years. Although the global population has now passed 8 billion, recent estimates of Earth’s carrying capacity run from two to four billion people, depending on how optimistic researchers are about the prospects for international cooperation to solve problems requiring collective action.
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Read more about: China’s Parade of Power: A New Chapter in the World’s Greatest Military Rivalry, Signifying a Shifting Global Order
13. **Defense Spending Trajectory**The parade’s impressive showcase of military might is underpinned by China’s rapidly escalating defense budget, a trajectory that has drawn considerable international attention. According to an analysis by the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), China’s defense spending has surged 13-fold over the past three decades, reflecting a sustained and aggressive investment in its military modernization programs. This consistent growth signals Beijing’s long-term commitment to enhancing its armed forces.
While China’s defense budget still accounts for approximately one-third of what the United States allocates to defense, the CSIS report, authored by Matthew Funaiole and Brian Hart, highlighted a rapid narrowing of this gap. In the past 12 years alone, Beijing has effectively halved the disparity in spending, indicating an accelerated pace of military expansion relative to its Western counterparts. This trend suggests a strategic push to achieve parity, or even superiority, in key military domains.
Regionally, the imbalance in defense spending is even more pronounced. The CSIS report explicitly stated that “China towers over its neighbors, spending five times as much on defense as Japan and nearly seven times as much as South Korea—two key US allies in the region.” This significant disparity underscores China’s overwhelming military financial advantage in East Asia, enabling it to drive extensive modernization efforts and project considerable regional influence with its allocated £186 billion defense budget for 2025.
Military equipment: Missile defense
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Summary: Missile defense is a system, weapon, or technology involved in the detection, tracking, interception, and also the destruction of attacking missiles. Conceived as a defense against nuclear-armed intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), its application has broadened to include shorter-ranged non-nuclear tactical and theater missiles.
China, France, India, Iran, Israel, Italy, Russia, Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States have all developed such air defense systems.
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Read more about: Beyond the Spectacle: What China’s Military Parade Reveals for Asia and a Reordering World
14. **Naval Expansion**A particularly stark area of difference between China and the United States in the evolving global military landscape lies at sea, where Beijing is projected to achieve significant numerical superiority. According to the CSIS report, China is expected to possess 48% more battle force ships than the US by the year 2030. This projection carries profound implications for maritime power dynamics, especially in strategic waterways across the Indo-Pacific region.
This anticipated naval expansion aligns with historical observations regarding naval warfare. A 2023 paper by a professor at the US Naval War College, which examined past naval conflicts, concluded that “the bigger fleet almost always wins.” Such a finding lends significant weight to China’s current shipbuilding efforts and its strategic goal of building a larger, more formidable navy capable of exerting dominance and potentially challenging established maritime powers.
The parade’s display of various new-type unmanned maritime weapons, including extra-large uncrewed underwater vehicles (XLUUVs) like the AJX002, further reinforces this naval strategy. These long, black, torpedo-shaped crafts, estimated to be around 60 feet long with pump-jet propulsion systems, are built for stealth and deep-sea operations. China is already operating the world’s largest XLUUV program with at least five distinct types, alongside unmanned boats and mine-laying systems, and unmanned helicopters designed to be launched from ships, all contributing to a comprehensive and advanced naval expansion.
Military equipment: Imperial Japanese Navy
UnitName: Imperial Japanese Navy
NativeName: nobold
Caption: Rising Sun Flag
StartDate: Tue Dec 31 1867 16:07:02 GMT-0752 (Pacific Standard Time)
Disbanded: 1945
Country: Empire of Japan
Allegiance: Emperor of Japan
Type: Navy
Colors: Color box,Navy blue,Color box,White
Role: Naval warfare
CommandStructure: Imperial Japanese Armed Forces
March: Gunkan kōshinkyoku
Anniversaries: 27 May
Battles: Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874),First Sino-Japanese War,Boxer Rebellion,Russo-Japanese War,World War I,Second Sino-Japanese War,World War II
Commander1: Emperor of Japan
Commander1Label: Commander-in-chief
Commander2: See list
Commander2Label: Ministry of the Navy (Japan)
Commander3: See list
Commander3Label: Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff
IdentificationSymbol: File:Roundel of Japan (1943).svg
IdentificationSymbolLabel: Roundel
IdentificationSymbol2: Ranks of the Imperial Japanese Navy
IdentificationSymbol2Label: Ranks
AircraftGeneral: List of aircraft of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Categories: 1869 establishments in Japan, 1945 disestablishments in Japan, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, All articles with unsourced statements, Articles containing Japanese-language text
Summary: The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國海軍 Shinjitai: 大日本帝国海軍 ‘Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire’, or 日本海軍 Nippon Kaigun, ‘Japanese Navy’) was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan’s surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) was formed between 1952 and 1954 after the dissolution of the IJN.
The IJN was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States Navy (USN). It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for reconnaissance and airstrike operations from the fleet. It was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War. The IJN additionally fielded limited land-based forces, including professional marines, marine paratrooper units, anti-aircraft defense units, installation and port security units, naval police units, and ad-hoc formations of sailors pressed into service as naval infantry.
The origins of the IJN date back to early interactions with nations on the Asian continent, beginning in the early feudal period and reaching a peak of activity during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers during the Age of Discovery. After two centuries of stagnation during the country’s ensuing seclusion policy under the shōgun of the Edo period, Japan’s navy was comparatively antiquated when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually led to the Meiji Restoration. Accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization. The IJN saw several successes in combat during the early twentieth century, sometimes against much more powerful enemies, such as in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, before being largely destroyed in World War II.
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Read more about: China’s Parade of Power: A New Chapter in the World’s Greatest Military Rivalry, Signifying a Shifting Global Order
The grand military parade of September 3, 2025, served as more than just a commemorative event; it was a carefully orchestrated declaration of China’s strategic intent and its advanced military capabilities. From the integration of cutting-edge cyber and space forces to the modernization of its nuclear triad and the sheer scale of its industrial output, Beijing presented a cohesive vision of its future armed forces. This formidable display of hardware and doctrine underscores China’s determination to redefine its position in the global order, signaling a profound and ongoing shift in military power that warrants sustained international analysis and careful consideration.
